solar photovoltaic systems technical training manual pdf

It means that we need to prefix kilo for this, and therefore, we should divide the answer by 1000 as the value of prefix kilo is 1000. MPPT tracking voltage range: These are the voltage levels that the charge controller can handle. Avoid sharp edges and mechanical damage to cable insulation. 2.3.2 Solar PV Systems 33 Similar to different types of solar cells, the solar PV modules also get different names based on type of solar cells used in making solar PV modules. Estimate the total energy consumed in a day by all the loads. File:Solar Photovoltaic Systems Technical Training Manual.pdf File File history File usage Original file (3,400 2,729 pixels, file size: 6.98 MB, MIME type: application/pdf, 123 pages) Solar Photovoltaic Systems: Technical Training Manual; UNESCO Publishing 2003, Herbert Wade File history Every battery is subjected to rigorous mechanical and electrical tests in order to check and guarantee that it works correctly and is reliable. The current reading will drop when the fuse on the bad circuit is pulled. I would also like to thank my students Som, Mehul, Bandana, Amrita, Paresh and Hemant for bearing with me during the writing of this book. The plant is being set up at location where the average temperature reaches up to 45C. Therefore, the number of modules in series = Module voltage 32 Thus, 12 PV modules need to be connected to get string voltage of 384 V. Step 2: DC current of series-connected solar PV string = DC current of individual solar PV module. Scheduled maintenance is done on periodic basis. Usually, a standard multimeter can measure the following electrical quantities: 1. If a PV module operates at voltage higher than Vm, the module output power decreases again (due to decrease in current) and at open circuit voltage (Voc), PV module power decreases to zero. Electricity consumption 2.1.5 Energy and Its Units There are several units of energy. In this case, the PV system is assumed to be connected with the grid. Voltage of cells strings connected in series When we connect cells in series, we get a string of solar cells. Figure 12.6 Parts of a hydrometer. For instance, under Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission, the government is awarding the contracts to install solar PV power plants in capacity of 5 MWp. The generated heat results in increase in temperature of wire and its insulation. 3. There are two categories of solar energy technologies; one is solar PV technology (for which this manual is dedicated) and other is solar thermal technology. It is also possible that some PCUs are only one directional, i.e., they are designed to control the power flow in one direction only, mainly from grid to PV system. In order to calculate AC power and current fed into grid, use the following two steps: Step 1AC power fed into grid: AC power fed into grid = DC power produced by PV array Power lost in converting DC power to AC power. Negative net meter reading: If PV generated energy is greater than energy consumed by load, energy is exported to grid. 469 pages : 29 cm + "In partnership with NJATC." Includes index Introduction to photovoltaic systems -- Solar radiation -- Site surveys and preplanning -- System components and configurations -- Cells, modules, and arrays -- Batteries -- Charge controllers -- Inverters -- System sizing -- Mechanical integration -- Electrical integration -- Utility interconnection -- Permitting and inspection . If PV array power is less than our load requirement then some power is drawn from the grid to make up the shortage power. The DC motors may run backwards. Illustration 7.2 Similar to above example, when four 12 V battery of 150 Ah are connected in parallel, the voltage of 12 V and high capacity of 600 Ah is obtained as shown in Figure 7.10. (#) 70 35 250 3 3 1 Total watts (W No.) The effect of temperature on the resistance of wire should be accounted in the design. The grounding conductor must not be fused or switched. Generally, wires are coated with any insulating material like polyvinyl chloride (PVC), nylon, polyester, etc., to prevent shock hazards and energy loss through unwanted current conduction and avoid short circuit between two wires running together. Since the power consumption of a 20-watt CFL is double than a 10-watt CFL, it implies that a 20-watt CFL consumes energy twice as fast as a 10-watt CFL. We can convert this in round figure that is 6. VDI 60 52 45 39 34 29 24 20 17 14 12 10 8 6 5 4 3 2 Ampacity (ampere) 195 179 165 150 136 123 111 101 91 81 73 64 55 46 39 33 27 21 Example 9.8 Calculate the wire size needed for a 24 V DC PV system for connecting a battery to a DC load such that the voltage drop between battery and DC load does not exceed 2% of system voltage. Consider a water tank as shown in Figure 1.2. The parallel string inverters are used with thin film modules having large voltage output and small current output. For instance, a cooler will be used mainly in summer but not in winter. Assuming DC cable losses of 3%: PV array DC power output (in kW) = Thus, PV array DC output power = Inverter DC power input (kW) (1 - DC cable losses) 4.34 4.34 4.34 = = = 4.47 kW 1 - (3/100) 1 - 0.03 0.97 In this way, the estimated size of PV array is 4.03 kW. Total current produced by a solar cell is obtained by multiplying the current density of a cell with its area. Thus wherever there is moving water some electrical energy can be generated. 28 Solar Photovoltaic Technology and Systems: A Manual for Technicians, Trainers and Engineers Worksheet 2.3: Fill the following table (Table 2.7) on power units and their conversion from one unit to other unit. So 24 V, 16.25 A MPPT charge controller suits well for this system. If the grid voltage is 240 V AC, what is the AC current fed into the grid? Never bring flame, spark, ignite fire near battery. Similarly, wind energy (movement of wind) and hydro energy (movement of water) are renewable energy sources, can be harnessed in any amount and cannot be depleted. Here, we have listed some of the tools with their respective functions and physical appearance in Tools Required for Battery Table 7.15. VRH also determines how effectively the controller can charge the battery. The unit of electrical resistivity is the ohm metre (-m) and commonly represented by the Greek letter r (rho) (Figure 9.2). Another look up table (Table 10.30) is prepared which provides the sizing of the PV system components based on daily energy consumption. Interconnect module connectors under open circuit. Table 7.10 Parameters of 2, 3, 6, 9 and 10 Batteries Connected in Parallel NP VT (V) CT (Ah) IT (A) Power (kW) Energy (kWh) 2 3 6 9 10 12 12 12 12 12 300 450 900 1350 _ _ _ 30 45 90 135 _ _ _ 0.36 0.54 1.08 1.62 _ _ _ 3.6 5.4 10.8 16.2 _ _ _ 7.9 Mixed Connection In mixed type of connections, the total number of batteries used is equal to the product of number of batteries in series and number of batteries in parallel. Two rows of PV panels are mounted with space adequate to avoid shadow of one row of panels onto the other. Power Power = Voltage Current Using ammeter and voltmeter we can mesaure current and voltage, and by multiplication we can measure the power in a circuit. So, inverter should be capable of providing 466.7 4 = 1867 W surge power. Recharge the battery bank; follow steps 11 to 16, record specific gravity, cell voltages and temperature of all cells during recharging. How to read the graphs? For example, a solar PV module can converts sunlight into electricity. The main terms associated with electricity are as follows: Current Voltage Power Energy AC and DC power As a technician, one should know all the above terms related to electricity. 8. 152 Solar Photovoltaic Technology and Systems: A Manual for Technicians, Trainers and Engineers Table 7.9 The Estimation of Power of Array of Batteries for Parallel Connection No. The corners and edges of frameless modules (typically thin film types) are particularly sensitive and are subject to high level of breakage risk during transport and installation. Chapter 10: Solar PV System Design and Integration 229 Fourth column is for listing the total number of same appliances of the same type. Thus, efficiency can be written as: A solar cell performance depends on its parameters or the cell parameters and determines the performance of a solar cell under the sunlight, particularly the amount of power it will produce in a given condition. Consider a factor of 0.95 to allow for array soiling, misalignment and any other factors when measuring array short circuit current. It is possible that after installation some tree or tree branches have grown enough to shadow module which were not there at the time of installations. Table 7.7 The Estimation of Number of Batteries Required in Parallel Connection for a Given Output Capacity Parameters Symbol Value Unit Required battery array capacity Terminal voltage of a single battery (assuming all battery in parallel are identical) Ah capacity of single battery Number of batteries to be connected in parallel (NP) Ah capacity of parallel connected batteries Ahparallel V 300 12 ampere-hour volt Ah NP = Ahparallel/Ah Ahparallel = NP Ah 150 300/150 = 2 300 ampere-hour number ampere-hour Figure 7.8 Parallel connection of two lead-acid 150 Ah batteries. Field Wet Resistance Test (FWRT):Check insulation between PV array positive output and ground within specified limits. The main parameters of these inverters are maximum DC input voltage, maximum power point tracking voltage range, maximum DC input current, efficiency of inverter and its AC power rating. The string blocking diodes are also optional for small size power plants using less than four strings. The commonly used set points are briefly described below and are shown in Figure 8.11. Looking at the PV module parameters given in Table 11.1, let us choose a PV Module 7 having rated wattage of 240 Wp. The disconnect on the PV output circuit should be open and the shorting link should be removed. So, when solar cell area is large, the amount of electric current generated by it will be large. The names of commonly available PV modules are: mono-crystalline silicon solar PV module, multi-crystalline silicon solar PV module, amorphous silicon solar PV module, cadmium telluride solar PV module, CIGS solar PV modules, etc. Check the PV modules and batteries for proper series-parallel configurations. Table 10.15 An Example of Estimating the Usable Charge or Ah Capacity of Battery if the DoD of Battery is Given Required capacity (Ah) DoD (%) Actual capacity (Ah) 2420 12 = 201.66 Ah 50 201.66 0.5 = 403.32 Consider number of days of autonomy: The batteries in standalone PV systems store energy to supply the power to the load during non-sunshine hours. As per the marking in SWG, the wire gauge numbers and corresponding diameters and cross sectional areas are given in Table 9.2. Inverter should be able to supply the surge power required by the inductive loads. These fuels cannot be produced as fast as they are being consumed. A typical I-V curve of a PV module is shown in Figure 4.4. But one should try to get the actual power rating or what is called the name-plate rating of the appliances. These cells are made of using different materials. Normally, the efforts are made to optimize the battery requirement and reduce the cost. Short circuit current (Isc): It is the maximum current a solar cell can produce. In order to achieve this objective, many components are connected together in solar PV system, other than PV modules. Take the average ambient temperature of 25C, and average solar radiation of 5.5 kWh/m2/day. If the drain is not caused by load, remove the fuses from the interior fuse junction panel one at a time, until the cause of the drain is located. Table 9.4 Look Up Table Correlating Diameter, Cross-sectional Area and Resistance of the Wire for Various Lengths (for copper wire) Diameter, Area, A d (mm) (mm2) 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 0.20 0.79 1.77 3.14 4.91 7.07 9.62 12.56 15.90 19.63 23.75 28.26 33.17 38.47 44.16 50.24 56.72 63.59 70.85 78.50 Resistance of Wire, R () (for Copper wire) Total (two way) wire length, l (m) 1 2 4 6 8 10 12 15 20 25 30 0.1090 0.0273 0.0121 0.0068 0.0044 0.0030 0.0022 0.0017 0.0013 0.0011 0.0009 0.0008 0.0006 0.0006 0.0005 0.0004 0.0004 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 0.2180 0.0545 0.0242 0.0136 0.0087 0.0061 0.0044 0.0034 0.0027 0.0022 0.0018 0.0015 0.0013 0.0011 0.0010 0.0009 0.0008 0.0007 0.0006 0.0005 0.4362 0.1090 0.0485 0.0273 0.0174 0.0121 0.0089 0.0068 0.0054 0.0044 0.0036 0.0030 0.0026 0.0022 0.0019 0.0017 0.0015 0.0013 0.0012 0.0011 0.6543 0.1636 0.0727 0.0409 0.0262 0.0182 0.0134 0.0102 0.0081 0.0065 0.0054 0.0045 0.0039 0.0033 0.0029 0.0026 0.0023 0.0020 0.0018 0.0016 0.8724 0.2181 0.0969 0.0545 0.0349 0.0242 0.0178 0.0136 0.0108 0.0087 0.0072 0.0061 0.0052 0.0045 0.0039 0.0034 0.0030 0.0027 0.0024 0.0022 1.0904 0.2726 0.1212 0.0682 0.0436 0.0303 0.0223 0.0170 0.0135 0.0109 0.0090 0.0076 0.0065 0.0056 0.0048 0.0043 0.0038 0.0034 0.0030 0.0027 1.3085 0.3271 0.1454 0.0818 0.0523 0.0363 0.0267 0.0204 0.0162 0.0131 0.0108 0.0091 0.0077 0.0067 0.0058 0.0051 0.0045 0.0040 0.0036 0.0033 1.6357 0.4089 0.1817 0.1022 0.0654 0.0454 0.0334 0.0256 0.0202 0.0164 0.0135 0.0114 0.0097 0.0083 0.0073 0.0064 0.0057 0.0050 0.0045 0.0041 2.1809 0.5452 0.2423 0.1363 0.0872 0.0606 0.0445 0.0341 0.0269 0.0218 0.0180 0.0151 0.0129 0.0111 0.0097 0.0085 0.0075 0.0067 0.0060 0.0055 2.7261 0.6815 0.3029 0.1704 0.1090 0.0757 0.0556 0.0426 0.0337 0.0273 0.0225 0.0189 0.0161 0.0139 0.0121 0.0106 0.0094 0.0084 0.0076 0.0068 3.2713 0.8178 0.3635 0.2045 0.1309 0.0909 0.0668 0.0511 0.0404 0.0327 0.0270 0.0227 0.0194 0.0167 0.0145 0.0128 0.0113 0.0101 0.0091 0.0082 For example, if the length of the wire is 10 m and the calculated value of resistance is 0.03 ohm () and if you are using copper wire, then from Table 9.4 for copper wire, the value of required diameter is 3 mm and cross-section area is 7.07 mm2. 52 Solar Photovoltaic Technology and Systems: A Manual for Technicians, Trainers and Engineers First, we convert area unit from square centimetre (cm2) to square metre (m2) by dividing area in cm2 by 10000. This relationship is given by the following equation: I I rms = m 2 Similar to AC current, the AC voltage also varies in direction and in value with time as shown in Figure 1.8(d). Grid is used as battery back-up when power generated by PV array is insufficient. 8. Usually, for the solar PV system wiring, the permitted voltage drop is 2% to 3% between two circuit nodes (from one equipment to other equipment). is assumed and the total daily energy consumption is estimated. Normally, the tables are prepared for the estimating the energy requirement for each load. On the other hand, the AC power with square wave is considered low quality AC power while the AC power with sine wave is considered high quality AC power. The interconnection of these components in a grid-connected solar PV system is shown in Figure 11.8. Note: Sometime when we need to get higher output voltage from a PV module, higher than 15 V or so, we need to connect more cells in series. This is why the number of discharged batteries will increase in very hot weather. Consider an ambient temperature of 25C, what will be the estimated annual energy generation from the plant. The variation of AC current with respect to time is shown in Figure 1.8(c). (typically 1000 V DC). Give the details of all component selected for this plant. In series connection, the negative terminal of one battery is connected to the positive terminal of other battery. Therefore, we need to make a PV system configuration which can supply power to AC loads as well. Step 2:Sizing and choice of electronics components (volts and amperes) After estimating the energy requirement of the load, the next step is to choose appropriate electronics suitable for this PV system. Consider two batteries, a 5 V battery and a 10 V battery. 41 The sunlight falling on the earth is basically the bundles of photons or bundles of small energy. While performing battery maintenance, it is essential to estimate the state of charge of the battery. Then, the percentage of power losses for crystalline silicon modules or PV array due to temperature is: Module temperature loss = 55C - 25C 0.45% = 13.5% C Module soiling losses: This is the loss due to dust settlement on the PV module which hinders solar radiation entering inside and thus reduces power output. Thus, in this case, equivalent sunshine hours are 5.5 hours per day and monthly equivalent sunshine hours is 5.5 31 = 170.5 or 170.5 hours per month (for the month of January). Power output of a 500 watt (rated power) inverter as a function of temperature is shown in Figure 8.5 (For precise variation users manuals can be referred). Thus, Cell efficiency at 60C = cell efficiency at STC decrease in cell efficiency due to temperature h (60 C) = h (STC) - 0.45 %/C of h (STC) = h (STC) - 0.45 %/C h (STC) DT (C) 0.45 = 15 15 35 = 15 - 2.36 = 12.63% 100 It is clear from the above calculations that the cell efficiency decreases as the cell operating temperature increases. Both the conditions are not good for the battery health. Ensure they are within maximum power specifications. Total Ah capacity of battery = 236 Solar Photovoltaic Technology and Systems: A Manual for Technicians, Trainers and Engineers Number of batteries: From the above estimation, for the example of standalone PV system considered in this case, we need to provide 806.6 Ah of batteries with terminal voltage of 12 V. Now, we have to choose appropriate batteries available in the market. The connection of three 12 V batteries in series to obtain 36 V voltage is shown in Figure 7.5. Example 4.1 Solution When solar cells are connected in series the voltage of each cell adds up while the current in the series connected cells remain same as that of a single cell. Some of these works are required for running our lives, for example cooking of food while many other works are required to provide comfort to our body such as the use of air conditioner, cooler, etc. Problem 9.1: There are two wires of copper and aluminum, each having same length and same diameter. The term gauge refers to the thickness of a thin sheet or diameter of wires. Similarly, less power is generated when the intensity of light falling is low. In practical applications, the operating Operating Temperature (T) temperature of solar cells may be different than 25C. The amount of electricity generated by a solar cell depends on the amount of sunlight incident on it. In the market, many types of batteries are available. (#) No. 2.4 Other Renewable Energy Technologies Other than solar PV technology, there are several other renewable energy technologies that use renewable energy sources. The electricity generated by solar cell depends upon the intensity (amount) of light, the area of a cell and the angle at which light falls on it. This can be seen from the P-V curve of a PV module shown in Figure 4.5. The battery to be charged is 12 V, therefore, the PV module voltage in all operating conditions should be about 15 V. Required PV module voltage = 15 V Step 5: Divide the required module voltage by available operating voltage to get number of cells connected in series. In solar PV systems, the current level at the DC side is normally higher than AC side. While choosing a wire, one has to ensure that the maximum operating current that will in the wire is well within its ampacity rating. Problem 9.5: A wire made of some conducting material has a resistance of 1.5 at 0C, and value of RTC/R0C for 60C is 1.25. Also, it is important to know not only the terms but also understand the difference between these terms. PV modules are mainly characterized in terms of their power rating, which is known as peak power rating. Here, giga represents 1,000,000,000 or 1000 million. Solution While delivering power, the PV modules are supposed to operate at maximum power points, therefore, current and voltage at maximum power point, i.e., Vmp and Imp are considered in calculations. If specific gravity of some of the cells is found below 1200 during the second discharging, the adjust the specific gravity by adding concentrated electrolyte. In approximate design, assumption are made and some parameters like the effect of temperature and radiation is neglected to make PV system design simple. Therefore, the total current of 190 strings connected in parallel will be: No. Voc of a single solar cell for various solar cell technologies has been mentioned in Table 3.4 in Chapter 3. 9. of hours (n) Energy = (Total watts No. Figure 1.20 Illustration of a wattmeter. of hours) (Wh) 210 (70 3) 105 (35 3) 250 (250 1) Total wattage = 565 W (210 + 105 + 250) 4 8 6 840 (210 4) 240 (30 8) 1500 (250 6) Total Energy = 2580 Wh (= 210 + 240 + 1500) Step 2 Electronics component selection: (a) Inverter capacity selection Load Inverter Total wattage of load (W) Efficiency (%) Output (W) 565 93 565 Input (VA) (Output (W) 100) Efficiency (565 100) 93 = 56500 93 = 607.52 VA 610 VA The nearest inverter capacity available to 610 VA is 650 VA, so, the inverter capacity installed will be of 12 V, 650 VA (input side). Ensure accessibility of roof structure after modules are installed for maintenance. 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